battles against catholics

 
The Battle of the Boyne (Irish: Cath na Bóinne, IPA: [ˈkah n̪ˠə ˈbˠoːn̪ʲə]) was fought in 1690 between two rival claimants of the English, Scottish, and Irish thrones – the Catholic King James and the Protestant King William (who had deposed James in 1688) – across the River Boyne near Drogheda on the east coast of Ireland. The battle, won by William, was a turning point in James' unsuccessful attempt to regain the crown and ultimately helped ensure the continuation of Protestant ascendancy in Ireland.
The battle took place on 1 July 1690 in the "old style" (Julian) calendar. This was equivalent to 11 July in the "new style" (Gregorian) calendar, although today its commemoration is held on 12 July.^[1] William's forces defeated James' army of mostly raw recruits. The symbolic importance of this battle has made it one of the best-known battles in British–Irish history and it is a key part of the folklore for the Orange Order. Its commemoration today is principally by the Protestant Orange Institution

A brief history on the Incas

The Inca Empire lasted from 1450 - 1530, when it was destroyed by the Spanish.
The Inca had a governmental system that was based on a hierarchy. from the King who was considered a son of god, to the peasants.
The Inca empire stretched across modern day Argentina, Peru and Chile. threw out the empire, there were 3 distinct geographical features: The Andes mountains, The Atacama desert, and the Amazon rainforest.
The Inca were polytheistic and they practiced ancestral worship. Some of their gods were: moon, thunder, rain, mountain... all nature related gods. they even considered stones  objects of worship. sometimes, the most beautiful 10-year-old girls were selected to be sacrificed to the gods and buried atop Andean mountain peaks. in less dramatic ceremonies, guinea-pigs or llamas were sacrificed.
Because of common drought, the Inca developed a canal system, as well as stepped terraces for farming. varieties of corn, potato squash, beans, peppers and peanuts were all crops grown and farmed by hand.
In the highlands, farmers used the remains of slaughtered llamas as a fertilizer. llamas, alpacas, and vicus, were very important to the economy. In addition to carrying burdens, llamas and alpacas were raised as a source of coarse wool and of dung, which was used for fuel( dried and then burned). The Inca also raised guinea pigs, ducks, and dogs, which were the main sources of meat protein.
The women would weave cotton or wool. The geometric patterns were of everyday life, or of religion, and was used to record certain events. Weaving was considered a significant art form
The Incas were skilled crafts such as textiles, weaving, pottery, and metalwork. Inca art was used in both religion and daily life clothing.
Inca emperors built a 10,000-network of stone roads, and had trained runners that could cover about 250 miles a day!
The Inca built suspension bridges of rope that were marvels of engineering. Some of these rope bridges were about 330 feet in length. The bridges were made from ropes of twined plant fibers. Cuzco was the Inca capital for trade and government.
Machu Picchu, is also called "city in the sky", Hiram Bingham discovered the city in 1911. the Spanish had not discovered or plummeted this city, and most impressive is the masonry, which is cut with such perfection and care. During the 1500s, Atahualpa was the 12th and last ruler of the Incas. the king was the son of god, and thus always had unlimited power to govern. Inca kings lived a lavish lifestyle, where they would attend ceremonies, and be pampered.
llamas, alpacas, and vicuas, or fuel. The Inca also raised guinea pigs, ducks, and dogs, these were all their main sources of protein. the llama dung was used for fire fuel. and vicuas produced a very soft wool.
In the 1530s, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca. the main driving force behind these Spaniards was greed, they wanted all the Inca gold. the Spanish won by having the advantages of horses and gunpowder, which was no match for the primitive weapons of the Inca. This conquest ended the Inca empire and destroyed its culture.
If the Spanish hadn't come to South America, some other greedy Europeans would have. throughout history, the side with ths strongest military pillage and plunder, kill, and then leave or set up a colony. if the Spanish hadn't found the Inca, someone else would have. It would only be a matter of time before they would meet their doom. Because in Europe, people began questioning this new worlds existence, and came over to find new land. and when they also found hordes of gold, why that was even better. so whether it be the Spanish, English or the french, the Inca would have thrived perhaps for a few more years, but either way, would meet the same destiny.

The Aztec

Aztec pyramid
Aztec God
The people widely known as the Aztecs called themselves Mexica, after their patron deity Mexi, who according to their legends brought them out of captivity into the region of Lake Tezcoco, at the heart of what is now modern Mexico, in the middle ages. In 1325AD they founded the city of Tenochtitlan on an island off the western shore of the lake. The city grew large and prosperous, and a war of independence from local overlords in 1428-30 led to it dominating the region. By the end of the 15th century the Mexica ruler, the "tlatoani", ruled over a powerful and growing empire. The tribute of neighbouring states helped make its capital splendid. In the lake city, radiating "suburbs" of the common people's houses surrounded the ruler's palace. Above that loomed a pyramid-like temple on whose high platform thousands of people died in mass sacrifices.
The deities who demanded such slaughter included Quetzalcoatl, the "feathered serpent",  god of procreation, desire and the winds; Tezcatlipoca or "smoking mirror", the patron of rulers, warriors and magicians; and Tlaloc, god of rain. A complicated calendar and an elaborate festive cycle unified all the different gods and myths in one baroque system of intense beliefs. The sun, the calendar, and the gods are given visceral, yet sometimes unexpectedly delicate and moving form by the great works of Mexica art, which owes a lot to the art of the neighbouring Mixtec people. Mixtec craftsmen were employed by the Mexica for their superb skills. The results earned the admiration of the Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer.
In 1492, a Genoese sailor named Columbus sailed west from Spain in search of the Indies. It was the ironic fate of this newest in a long line of native American city cultures to coincide with the coming of the Europeans – yet Mexica culture did not vanish with the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Native artists continued to make painted books telling their history in the "glyphs" of their own pictorial script. Tenochtitlan itself rose again – as Mexico City. The Spanish built their colonial capital on top of the ruins of the fallen Mexica capital. Today, archaeologists are constantly finding spectacular art and artefacts under the streets of Mexico City. Mexico's famous Day of the Dead festival, with its grisly yet comic cavortings of the dead, recalls the skull motifs and the sacrifices of the lost world of Moctezuma. Mexico's pride in its past is reflected too in the desire to reclaim the "Aztecs" – as the Mexica

The Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War was a series of wars between England and France. The background of the Hundred Years War went as far back as to the reign of William the Conqueror. When William the Conqueror became king in 1066 after his victory at the Battle of Hastings, he united England with Normandy in France. William ruled both as his own.

Under Henry II, the lands owned by England in France became even larger and the kings who followed Henry found the land they owned in France too large and difficult to control. By 1327, when Edward III became king, England only controlled two areas of France - Gascony in the south and Ponthieu in the north.

In 1328, Charles IV of France died. Charles did not have any sons to take over his land and all his brothers were dead. He did have a sister called Isabella. She was the mother of Edward III and Edward believed that because of this, he should be king of France. However, the French decided that a cousin of Charles, Philip, should be crowned king.
Edward was furious but he was not in a position to do anything in the late 1320’s. By 1337 he was ready to fight for what he believed was his and he declared war on Philip. Edward was not only willing to fight for what he believed was his - the crown of France - but also he feared that Philip was a threat to his possessions in France - Gascony and Ponthieu.
Edward now had to raise an army. There were men who looked forward to fighting abroad in an army as it gave them the opportunity to plunder treasure and bring things back to England which could make them rich. However, many men were not keen on fighting as they were usually more concerned about farming. A war in the autumn could be a disaster as this was harvest time.
The feudal system meant that knights had to provide the king with soldiers when the king demanded them. However, war had moved on from the time of the Battle of Hastings and the longbow was now the most feared of weapons and not the knight on horseback. The king's officials went around England looking for skilled archers. All young men in medieval villages were expected to practice archery so there were many skilled archers to be found. It was left to a village to decide who would actually go to fight but the village as a whole would have to look after the family or families affected by someone leaving. Those who went were paid three pence a day.
Armies were very expensive. Fighting abroad made them even more expensive to run. This problem could be got around by making a local area in France, which was under your control, pay a 'tribune' to you. This would keep your costs down. In return for paying a tribune, the area concerned was given a promise that the troops there would behave themselves and would not damage homes, steal crops and kill animals. In this sense, paying a tribune was similar to buying protection.
references google search the hundred years war/ask.com

Battles Mideival ages

The Middle Ages are marked as the period between the collapse of the Roman Empire and the rise of the Renaissance period.
The Battle of Hastings & The Battle of Bannockburn
The Battle of Hastings was one of the most significant middle ages war due to the subsequent changes that it brought across the English throne. The battle had an impact on English language, culture and law and marked the early beginnings of the English feudalism. The battle of Hastings began 14 October 1066 AD when King Edward of England died without children to succeed him. After his death, his close friend Harold Godwinson took over the throne but this was met with opposition from Edward’s cousin, William the Duke of Normandy.
In an effort to take over the throne, William sent his 7000 strong army to descend upon the beaches of Pevensey. The English army of Harold was largely made up of an infantry of professional soldiers who rode their way to the battle and walked on foot when they were almost close to their destination. The Norman army was composed of mercenaries and nobles from Falders, Normandy, Brittany, France and Italy. At the start of the battle, both sides applied simple tactics; Harold had to form a strong shield at the top of Senlac ridge in Hastings, while William had to cut through this wall.
Initially William’s cavalry faced major blows, but when the English army ran down the ridge chasing the Flemish infantry, William saw an ideal opportunity to surround them from behind with his archers. The English army was thus trapped in between William’s archers and the infantry. The Normans raged a fierce battle and it is believed that Harold was killed at this moment, leaving William to gain the throne as the first Norman king of England.
The Battle of Bannockburn was Scotland’s war of independence against the Kings of England Edward I and Edward II. The war took place in Central Scotland on June 23rd and 24th 1314 between the Scottish army and the English, Welsh and a segment of the Scottish army. The battle began when Edward II, brother to the Scottish King took over Stirling Castle despite the fact that it had a formidable defense. The castles’ governor Sir Philip de Mowbray offered to surrender the castle to Edward II if no relief was forthcoming. Edward congregated an army totaling over 40,000 soldiers; these included knights, bowmen and both strong and lightweight infantry.
The Scot army under King Robert of Scotland, was made up of 13,000 soldiers, thereby convincing Edward II that he would conquer Scotland. The battle began June 23. Notably the English knight suffered more casualties than the Scottish soldiers. King Robert managed to defeat the strongmen of England by creating a ford through which the English knights and infantry passed through. This caused a sense of confusion causing the English archers to shoot at their own soldiers. It was this consternation that led the Scots to win the battle for independence.

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire  was the post-Republican period of ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean in Europe, Africa, and Asia.^[7] The 500-year-old Roman Republic, which preceded it, had been destabilized through a series of civil wars. Several events marked the transition from Republic to Empire, including Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator.
(Wikipedia)

Roman republic

The Romans established a form of government — a republic — that was copied by countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is based partly on Rome's model.

The ladder to political power in the Roman Senate was different for the wealthy patricians than for the lower-class plebeians.

It all began when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E. Centered north of Rome, the Etruscans had ruled over the Romans for hundreds of years.

Once free, the Romans established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. A republic is quite different from a democracy, in which every citizen is expected to play an active role in governing the state.

Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization when the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 509 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate. A complex constitution gradually developed, centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. Except in times of dire national emergency, public offices were limited to one year, so in theory at least, no single individual could dominate his fellow citizens.

Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that began growing on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world.

Roman Empire

Hellenistic Greece

The nominal start of the Hellenistic period is usually taken as the 323 BC death of Alexander the Great in Babylon. During the previous decade of campaigning ( from 334 BC ), Alexander had conquered the whole Persian Empire, overthrowing the Persian King Darius III. The conquered lands included Asia Minor, Assyria, the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Media, Persia, and parts of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and the steppes of central Asia.
Alexander had made no special preparations for his succession in his newly founded empire, dying as he did at a young age, and thus on his death-bed (apocryphally), he willed it to "the strongest".^[5] The result was a state of internecine warfare between his generals (the Diadochi, or 'Successors'), which lasted for forty years before a more-or-less stable arrangement was established, consisting of four major domains:
source: wikipedia

Introduction to Greece

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.^[1] Included in Ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea
source: wikipedia

Athens and Sparta

Sparta was a society built entirely around military life. Spartan citizen males were taken at the age of seven to be trained as warriors. They were expected to spend their time in miltary training, and live in communal barracks. meanwhile their farms were run by the woman and the slaves.

In Athens, all citizen males were expected to do two years military training from the age of eighteen, and they were expected to be ready to go to war at any time, but they were not entirely devoted to miltiary purposes. Athens, like Sparta, was a slave-based economy, 50% of the population were slaves.

Athens was a democracy, male citizens would gather in an assembley where they would elect officials, and vote on various issues. Sparta had two kings, both hereditary, but there were five ephors, elected by the citizen assembley, who oversaw and had veto power over the kings, so it was an interesting mixture of oligarchy and democracy.

In Athens, women would generally marry at quite an early age, around twelve to fourteen. They were expected to stay at home most of the time, and busy themselves spinning and weaving, and supervising the slaves. Women of the lower classes would go out and about more, as they would have to work for a living, and would not have slaves to do things like fetching water etc. Women took no part in political life, but they did participate fully in religious life, taking part in festivals, joining the msytery cults etc.

In Sparta, women were expected to exercise and keep fit like men, so that they would bear healthy children. They generally married later than Athenian women, at around eighteen. The women were mostly left to run things while the men were away, which gave them more freedom on the whole than Athenian women had.

The arts were more important in Athens than they were in Sparta. Athens produced many notable philosophers, writers, mathematicians, etc, whereas in Sparta military glory was everything. Even their poets were martial. Early Sparta produced some beautiful pottery and bronzes, but unlike Athens they had no coinage, they used iron spits several feet long for money.

Source:

'Exploring the World of the Ancient Greeks' by John Camp and Elizabeth Fisher

Heracles

Hercules is considered the greatest Greek hero of all. Unlike Theseus, who was both very strong and thoughtful, Hercules simply is strong. In fact, he is the strongest man who has ever existed, and therefore he considers himself something of a god. Indeed, he is half-god, a son of Zeus. Supremely confident, Hercules showed his brute force from a very early age, when he wrestled a snake that had slithered into his baby cradle.
The saddest incident of his life occurs after he has married Princess Megara and had three children with her. Hera, Zeus's jealous wife, cannot forgive her husband for having had Hercules as an illicit son, so she sends Hercules into insanity. One night Hercules goes mad and unwittingly kills his three boys. When he realizes what he has done, he almost kills himself, but Theseus persuades him to go on living; that is the heroic option.
To cleanse himself, Hercules visits the Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle tells him to go to Eurystheus, who sends him on almost impossible challenges. Hercules completes all of his twelve labors: killing the lion of Nemea, killing a creature with nine heads called the Hydra, capturing a stag with horns of gold, killing a boar, cleaning the thousands of Aegean stables in one day, exiling the Stymphalian birds, going to Crete and retrieving the beautiful savage bull that Poseidon gave Minos, retrieving the man-eating mares, bringing back the girdle of Hippolyta, returning the back of the cattle of Geryon (a monster with three bodies), bringing back the Golden Apples of Hesperides—and, finally, bringing Cerberus, the three-headed dog, up from Hades.
source: google

source: google: type illiad and odessey/short story summary

The Iliad is a description of 24 days of the 10 year war. It does not start at the beginning nor does it include the end.


It starts when the Trojan war has already gone on for 9 years. My copy begins with "The wrath of achilles is my theme."

A plague breaks out. Achilles, the best fighter, calls an assembly. The sooth-sayer types say that agammenon the head guy, needs to give the girl Cryseis back to her father. Agamemnon takes this as a threat and so, to maintain his reputation as one tough dude, he takes Briseis away from Achilles to make up for his loss of Cryseis. Achilles is going to kill Agamemnon on the spot but is stopped by divine intervention (Athena). Instead, Achilles withdraws his services and watches the Greeks suffer from a lack of his services, that is enjoys watching them being slaughtered because he is really angry and not very nice.

Things get worse and worse for the Greeks. Zeus is honoring a promise to Thetis, Achilles' Goddess mother, to make Agamemnon (and thus the Greeks) suffer for the indignity. Finally, the Greeks are in really bad shape with the Trojans right at the ships and most of the best Greek warriors are wounded. Hector, the top Trojan warrior kills Patroclus (sp?) who is Achilles' best friend. Achilles is mad at the Trojans now and so he joins in with the Greeks and this shifts the balance to the Greeks. They kill all kinds of Trojans and the Trojans are now on the run and hide inside this city.

Achilles, still completely angry about Patroclus, goes outside of the gates of Troy, alone, and calls to Hector to fight him one on one. He doesn't give up but keeps calling out. Eventually Hector does this out of honor. Achilles kills Hector. Still completely consumed by anger, he ties the body of Hector to his chariot and drags it around a whole bunch. Finally, an envoy is sent by Priam, the king of Troy, to negotiate to get the body of Hector, his son, back for proper funeral rights. Priam and Achilles meet in the area between the armies, noman's land, and Achilles gives the body back. Hector's body is burnt.

And that's the story of the book.